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Adjective
A word that describes a noun. Different types of describing words include:

• possessive adjectives (eg. my his her)
• numbering adjectives (eg. two, many, lots of)
• describing adjectives (eg. big, old, yellow, beautiful)
• comparing adjectives (eg. more delicate, best bigger)
• classifying adjectives (eg. Persian cat, air transport).

Adjectival phrase
A group of words (usually beginning with a preposition) that give more information about a noun.

For example:
The girl with brown curly hair sat at the front.
The flowers in the vase were wilting.

Adjectival clause
A clause that provides information which defines the qualities or characteristics of the person or thing named. Usually begins with a relative pronoun and is sometimes called a relative clause.

For example:
The child who had the red top came first.
The books that I bought yesterday were discounted.

Adverbials
A general term to refer to those language features that tell more about a verb (eg. when, where, how). The main adverbials are adverbs and adverbial phases.

Adverbs
A word that tells something about a verb, adjective or another adverb to indicate such things as manner, time or place. An adverb commonly ends in -ly.

For example:
Krista ran quickly.
Bihn ran more quickly.
Go there after school.
She is most helpful.
He listened very carefully.

Adverbial phase
A group of words that provide information about where, when, with what, how far, how long, with whom, about what, as what.

For example:
She swept the floor with an old broom.
Tim spoke to James about his work.
Throughout time people have attempted to halt old age.

Analogy
Equivalence or likeness, eg likening the attributes of one character in a narrative to another, recognising how to pronounce one word because of its similarity to another.

For example:
main - rain

Antonym
A word or word group with a meaning opposite to that of another word or word group.

For example:
hot - cold
go away - come back

Apostrophe ( ' )
A punctuation marker used to:

• indicate possession, eg Rosie's cup (an apostrophe is not used with possessive pronouns her, his its theirs, ours);
• indicate missing letters or numbers in a contracted expression.

For example:
He's gone home.
It's news to me.
1900 = '90s

Article
There are three articles in the English language: a, an and the. Articles are placed before nouns and form part of the noun group when referring to either a specific person or thing (the) or a non-specific person or thing (a, an).

Base word
See 'Prefixes and suffixes'.

Channel of communication
The medium through which language is relayed. Language varies according to the channel of communication being used. Oral, face-to-face interaction, for example, is different from engagement with a written text, where the reader is distant in time and space.

Clause
A complete message or thought expressed in words. The essential component of a clause is a verb or verb group.

For example:
She played in the sandpit.
Duc was running home.

A main clause (also known as principal or independent clause) is a clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence or may join with other clauses, eg I am waiting for you.

A dependent clause (also known as subordinate clause) is a group of words that cannot usually stand alone as a sentence, eg While I was waiting for you....

Codes
Words, pictures and symbols used to convey a message.

Cohesive links
Those language features that help to develop unity within a text. Cohesion can involve referring words such as pronouns -

For example:
Tony wanted to escape but he couldn't run.
or content words that are related in various ways -
Tony wanted to escape but the poor wretch couldn't run.

Collocation
Words that typically go together or that cluster around the same topic or subject matter.

For example:
salt and pepper
stream, babbling, clear, crystal, pebbles

Colon ( : )
A punctuation marker used to introduce an explanatory statement or a list of items that complete the sense of the sentence.

For example:
There were three things in the back of the truck: a tent, a cricket bat and a wet blanket.

Comma ( , )
A punctuation marker used to indicate the grammatical organisation of sentences. Commas are used in sentences:

• to indicate separation between parts of a sentence such as clauses or phrases where such separation is important to the meaning

For example:
Children, who cannot lift such heavy weights, will not be allowed to participate.
Children who cannot lift such heavy weights will not be allowed to participate.

• to separate words, phrases or numbers in a series

For example:
Children like to eat apples, bananas, oranges and watermelons.

Command
A clause that gives direction or seeks an active response.

For example:
Leave now! Go!

Compound word
A word consisting of two or more words that has a meaning different from that of the individual words, eg farmyard.

Complex verb
When there is more than one verb in the verb group.

For example:
They were trying to lift up the box.

Conjunction / Connective
A word that indicates a connection in a sentence or between sentences:

• through adding information, eg and, as well
• through time, eg meanwhile, when
• by comparing or contrasting, eg likewise, on the other hand
• through cause and effect, eg because, so

Contextual information
Background knowledge, shared experience and subject - specific vocabulary, as well as expectations about how a text relates to the context of the situation, eg museum excursion - factual report.

Critical evaluation
Objective assessment of oral, visual or written text for the way in which themes, issues or ideas are presented.

Dash ( - )
A punctuation marker used to indicate a break or pause in a sentence or to begin and end a parenthetical clause. It is increasingly used in formal and informal writing where traditionally a colon, semi-colon or comma may have been used.

Direct / Quoted speech
Speech in a text that quotes what someone has said, giving the exact words.

For example:
She said, "Would you like to go sailing today?"

Dot point
A punctuation marker used to separate items in a list or key points for noting in written text.

For example:
You will need to locate the following objects:

• a blue pen
• two lead pencils
• a note pad.

Etymology
The origins of, and changes to, words in relation to meaning, eg words derived from earlier or other languages, place names, words derived from people's names, coinage (eg 'Kleenex'). See 'Word origin'.

Evaluative words
Language used by a speaker or writer to give a text a particular perspective (eg judgemental, emotional, critical) in order to influence how the audience will respond to the content of the text.

For example:
She looks really fabulous!
Kerry grumbled at the heavy workload.

Exclamation mark ( ! )
A punctuation marker used at the end of a sentence to emphasise the emotion or feeling that is contained in the sentence. In some forms, such as personal letters, it may be used to strengthen the humorous element in a sentence.

For example:
We found the cat asleep in the rubbish bin!
Go!

Field knowledge
Understanding and/or experience of the topic or subject, including subject vocabulary. Building field knowledge through excursions, discussions and other experiences assists in the reading and writing on a topic.

Finite verbs
Verbs that agree with their subject, eg He writes stories. They write stories.

Fluency
Ease of flow, eg in talking, reading and handwriting, spelling.

Full stop ( . )
A punctuation marker used to indicate the end of a sentence that is a statement or command.

For example:
Maria came into the room.
"Come into the room, Maria."

Grammatical / syntactical information
Information about language structure in comprehending a text, eg sentence structure, text organisation and word order.

Grapheme
The smallest unit of writing. A letter or combination of letters that corresponds to or represents phonemes, eg the 'f' in frog, the 'ph' in phone the gh in cough.

Graphological information
Visual information about words and texts in print, eg punctuation, letter sequences.

Graphophonic relationships
The connections between the sounds and the letters when reading or spelling.

High-frequency words
Words that occur often. May include words easily sounded out and sight words. Often related to general knowledge / experience.

For example:
house, mother, dog, the, an, my

Homograph
A word of the same spelling as another, but of a different origin and meaning.

For example:
wind (the wind blows), wind (wind the clock)

Homonym
A word having the same sound and often the same spelling, but a different meaning.

For example:
weak (adjective), week (noun)

Homophone
A word having the same sound as another but different spelling and meaning.

For example:
bear, bare

Hyphen ( - )
A punctuation marker used to indicate that a word id divided. The hyphen is placed between syllables or, in the case of compounds, between the parts of the word.

For example
role-play, self-correcting, pre-eminent.

Idioms
Set expressions that cannot be taken literally.

For example:
I've got a frog in my throat.

Indicator
Indicators exemplify the range of behaviours that contribute to achievement of outcomes. Indicators assist teachers in monitoring student progress within a stage. They also assist teachers in making on-balance judgements about the achievement of outcomes.

Indirect / Reported speech
Speech in a text that reports what someone has said and gives the content of the speech without repeating the exact words.

For example:
She said she wanted to go sailing today.

Interaction patterns
The ways in which people interact with each other and how these are influenced by context (eg in terms of age, gender, culture, status).

Interaction patterns are sometimes explored when considering, for example, the nature of students' interaction in group work or the way in which dialogue in narrative builds up the relationship between the characters.

Language
a) Figurative - words that help the reader to create an image, eg similes, metaphors, personification.

b) Evaluative - word choices that reflect the opinions, judgements and attitudes of the user, eg a fascinating book, a real bore.

c) Hedging - words that leave some room for negotiation, eg some people believe...., they tend to agree.

Letter-sound relationship
Association between a sound in English and a letter / letter pattern in words. This assists in word recognition when reading.

Memory
A spelling strategy drawing on 'known' or 'remembered' words. Memory may be:

• visual - recognising and recalling visual features, eg little, kettle, similar patterns
• auditory - recognising and recalling by writing, eg 'look-cover-write-check'
• tactile - recognising and recalling the feel of words
• articulatory - recognising and recalling the way the word is made in the mouth.

Metaphor
A relationship between ideas created by referring to something as if it were something else.

For example:
Knowledge is the key to success.

Mnemonic
Personalised memory cue.

Modality
The selection of words used by a writer or speaker to express different shades and degrees of meaning.

For example:
will, may, must, possibly, probably, usually

Modality can be expressed through various language features such as:

• modal verbs eg. I might go, I must go, I could go
• modal adverbs eg. I could possibly go, Perhaps I will go
• modal nouns eg. There is a possibility I will go
• modal adjectives eg. What is the probable ending?

Noun
A word used to represent people, places, ideas and things.

Nouns used to name any one of a class of things are known as common nouns, eg girl, classroom, egg.

Nouns used to name a place, a person or the title of something are known as proper nouns. Proper nouns commence with a capital letter.

For example:
Sam, Wagga Wagga, Olympic Games

Nouns used to name a group of things are known as collective nouns.

For example:
crowd, swarm, team

Nouns used to name things that we cannot see but which exist in thoughts and feelings are known as abstract nouns.

For example:
sadness, love, wonder

Other types of nouns include human / nonhuman, general / particular, everyday / technical, count / mass.

Noun group
A group of words representing who or what is involved. It may include different types of articles, adjectives and nouns linked together.

For example:
The run-down old inner-city terrace house is for sale.

Noun groups can also include adjectival phrases and adjectival clauses

For example:
The house with the broken windows is for sale.
The house that we saw yesterday is for sale.

A noun group can consist of two or more nouns.

For example:
Boys and girls come out to play
Jenny, the oldest child, came into the room.

Noun pro-noun agreement
Occurs when a writer or speaker selects the correct pronoun for the noun or noun group to which it is referring.

For example:
The boy was looking for his father in the supermarket.

Object
The noun, noun group or pronoun in a sentence that is affected by and action

For example:
The girl threw the ball.

Onset / Rime
The separate sounds in a word, i.e. the beginning part of the word (onset) and the rest of the word (rime), eg b-ark.

Outcome
A syllabus outcome expresses a specific intended result of the teaching of the syllabus. Outcomes are derived from the content of the syllabus and are arranged in stages. They provide clear statements of the knowledge, skills and understandings expected to be gained by most students as a result of effective teaching and learning.

Parentheses ( )
Punctuation markers used to enclose an explanatory word, phrase or sentence.

For example:
She was referring to her friend (Shirley) again.

Personification
Attributing human characteristics to nonhuman things.

For example:
The trees sighed and moaned in the wind.

Phoneme
The smallest unit of sound

Phonemic / Phonological awareness
The ability to attend to and segment the sound stream into 'chunks' of sound, eg phonemes, syllables, onset/rime.

Phonological information
Information about the sounds of language and letter-sound relationships (when comprehending a text), eg single sounds, blends.

Phrase
A group of words that forms part of a sentence and does not include a finite verb.

For example:
He put the rubbish in the bin

Prefix and Suffix
Word parts that are attached to the beginning or end of base words to change the meaning.

For example:
unhappy
happiness

The word to which the prefixes and suffixes are attached is called the base word (eg 'happy' in the above example).

Preposition
A word that begins an adverbial phrase or an adjectival phrase (indicating, for example, time, place, manner, causality.

For example:
in, on, after, before, by, under, over, of

Pronoun
A word that is used in place of a noun.

For example:
The bag is heavy. It is full of bricks.

It may be a:

• personal pronoun, eg he, she, we
• demonstrative pronoun, eg that this
• relative pronoun, eg who

Question mark ( ? )
A punctuation marker used at the end of a sentence to indicate that a question is being asked.

Quotation marks
Punctuation markers used to indicate:

("....") - direct or quoted speech or writing, eg "I am Arno's brother", he said

('.....') - the titles of poems, songs, short stories or articles, eg the well known song, 'Waltzing Matilda'
         - that attention is being drawn to an unusual or particular sense or usage of a word, eg Wombats are 'sociable' creatures.

A new paragraph and separate quotation marks are used for each speaker or writer being quoted. Quotation marks are not used for the speech of characters in a drama script.

Reading
a) Guided reading - occurs when a student reads a text at between 90% and 95% accuracy with teacher guidance to develop reading strategies.

b) Independent reading - occurs when a student reads a text with 95% or more accuracy, without assistance.

c) Shared reading - when the teacher or proficient reader reads aloud to a group or whole class. Students may be grouped so that they can see the text and the teacher can model reading strategies, read for enjoyment, or highlight particular features of the text.

Reference
A means for keeping track of objects, words, illustrations in written and spoken texts.

In spoken language the references may be to items in the surrounding environment. In written language the references are usually to words in the text, or to illustrations or other graphical items.

Reference links
Links that keep track of the people, animals or objects throughout a text, usually nouns or pronouns.

For example:
Sam sailed the boat down the coast. He overturned it and (he) was towed to shore.

Semantic information
The understanding developed and drawn from when comprehending a text, eg recognising word sets (antonyms, words related to topic), predicting and following the topic of the text, following groups of words in a logical sequence, looking at layout and features.

Semi colon ( ; )
A punctuation marker used to indicate a separation between clauses that is stronger than a comma but less complete than a full stop.

Semicolons may separate phrases or clauses that already include commas.

For example:
The competition was not decided today; it will finish next week.
undo the outer wrapping, taking care not to damage the catch; remove the protective cover and open the box.

Sentence - Simple, compound and complex
A collection of words consisting of either one clause or several clauses that are grammatically linked. A written sentence will begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark. There are different types of sentences. A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause (eg She ran to the train.). A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses joined by a connective (eg She ran to the train and jumped aboard.). A complex sentence consists of an independent clause and a dependent clause (eg She ran to the train while it was pulling out of the station.).

Sight word
A common word that often cannot be 'sounded out', and therefore needs to be memorised to enable reading success.

For example:
the, if, was

Simile
A relationship between two things or ideas, created by comparing them.

For example:
The room was like a tomb.

Statement
A clause that provides information.

For example:
I am leaving now.

Subject
The noun or noun group in a clause that agrees with the verb in the person and number.

For example
The girl threw the ball.
He ran home to see the news.

Subject matter
The topic or content of a text, eg information report on boats includes building materials, engines etc.

Subject - Verb agreement
Occurs when the writer or speaker selects the correct verb for the noun or noun group to which it is referring.

For example:
They were not home (as opposed to They was not home).

Syllable
A unit of sound within a word, eg won-der-ful.

Synonym
A word or word group with the same or similar meaning as another word or word group.

For example:
want - desire
go away - leave

Syntax
The way in which sentences and clauses are structured. Syntax is often described in terms of such elements as subject, verb and object.

For example:
Christine    munched    the apple
subject          verb          object

Tense
The form of the verb that indicates when something is happening in relation to the speaker's time: past, present or future.

This is indicated through the use of an inflection or through the use of auxiliary verbs.

For example:
She ate bananas. (past)
She is eating bananas. (present)
She will eat bananas. (future)

Terms of address
A name or title used when addressing different people.

For example:
mum, Dr Singh, Johnno, sir, darling

Theme of clause
The beginning focus of a clause. The beginning of a clause is used in English to focus the reader's attention on the way in which the theme of the text is being developed.

For example
Sugar gliders are marsupials

Upper and Lower case 
Upper-case and lower-case letters are two forms of the letters of the alphabet. Lower-case letters are used except when it is necessary to:

• indicate specific names such as those of organisations, titles, countries
• indicate the beginning of a sentence or the initial letter of a proper noun.

Upper-case letters are also used in headings to achieve a particular effect.

Verb
A word that tells what is happening or what is. Different types of verbs include:

• action verbs, eg They danced all night.
• thinking verbs, eg She forgot his name.
• feeling verbs, eg Sarah likes baked beans
• saying verbs, eg He whispered softly
• relating verb, eg Cows are herbivores.

Verb group
A group of words built up around a verb. Verb groups may include auxiliary verbs (i.e. those 'helping' verbs used to indicate tense or modality).

For example:
She is going soon.
They must leave before dark.

Verb groups can contain two or more verbs.

For example:
He huffed and puffed.
They were going to climb the fence.

These are sometimes called complex/compound verbs.

Some verb groups include other words such as adverbs and prepositions.

For example:
The plane took off.

Visual processing
Decoding and comprehending words and text based on appearance.

Voice
Way of indicating who is doing the action. Active voice is where the 'doer' of the action comes before the verb, eg Ann broke the vase. Passive voice is where the 'receiver' of the action is placed before the verb, eg The vase was broken by Ann.

Word chain
A sequence of nouns and noun groups or verbs and verb groups that unifies a text by linking a particular content strand. Chains can also be established through repetition. For example, in a text about birds, words such as pelicans, blue crane, moor-hens, ibises create word chain base on a pattern of words connecting classes of items.

Word origin
The source and history of a word (etymology)

For example:
photograph (from the Greek words for 'light' and 'picture').

Word play
Experimenting and manipulating language (often in humour), eg spoonerisms, double meanings, puns.